A.I. vs. Eyewitness: The Modoc War of 1872

Has Artificial Intelligence replaced illustrated journalism as the definitive record of history?

The Lava Beds, Lake Tule, California, The Scene of the Modoc Indian War (detail), based on a sketch by William Simpson, London Illustrated News, 1873.

In Artists on Horseback - The Old West in Illustrated Journalism 1857-1900 author and renowned reportage artist Paul Hogarth writes a chapter about 'Special Artist' William Simpson (1823-1899) and his coverage of the Modoc War of 1872.

The conflict broke out between the U.S. Military and the Modocs, the indigenous people who had lived in the far northern regions of California for thousands of years. Kintpuash, also known as Captain Jack, led the Modocs in resisting relocation to a reservation. He and his followers took refuge for seven months in caves, now called Captain Jack’s Stronghold.

Photo of Kintpuash,aka Captain Jack. Courtesy of Legends of America

Eskenwah, or Bob, a Warm Spring Indian, and Main Stake, the Wife of the Modoc Brave, Long Jim, 1873, drawings by William Simpson from Artists on Horseback - The Old West in Illustrated Journalism 1857-1900 by Paul Hogarth

The Modoc War began to make headlines around the world, especially after the murder by Kintpuash and others of Brigadier-General Edward Canby and 14 male settlers. People were enthralled by it as one of the last real-life, ‘Wild West’ battles that was unfolding on the American frontier.

Simpson was a battle-ready artist, having provided sketches and eyewitness accounts for The Illustrated London News of the Crimean War in 1854 and The Indian Rebellion in 1857. He learned of the Modoc standoff in San Francisco, while he was on an around-the-world assignment. He made a quick detour north to be there to cover the events.

Simpson traveled rough terrain, stayed in harsh conditions, and narrowly avoided death. His direct contact with the soldiers, settlers, and Modocs gave depth to his reportage. He praised the Modocs for their resilience and criticized the cruelty of the white settlers. He recognized the broader injustice Native Americans faced during westward expansion and admitted to a growing sorrow about their likely extinction. He wrote of, ‘the ruthlessness of those determined to drive the Indian from even the poorest land’.

‘The white man is an invader and spoiler…the hunting grounds belong to the red man, and legal claim to them was undoubted’ - William Simpson, Special Artist

Simpson was a stickler for accuracy. He made sketches on-the-spot, acknowledging that many published illustrations of Indian warfare were often overly dramatic. He was dedicated to depicting reality as true as possible. He also knew that his drawings often lost their immediacy when redrawn in London for print publication, muting the impact of his work.

Portraits of Imprisoned Modoc Warriors by Louis Herman Heller, 1873

This commitment to the truth got me thinking about what lies ahead for sketch artists and what they report on. While William Simpson wrestled with honest depictions, his choices and his subjectivity contain a bias. An artist chooses what to emphasize, what to omit, and how to convey urgency or sorrow through line and shadow. Those ‘imperfections’ provide authenticity.

In a recent article in The New York Times Bill Wasik reports on how Artificial Intelligence tools and its potential and pitfalls are shaping how we understand and believe history. In the case of the Modoc War, A.I. tools can source more data and hopefully tell a more complete story. A.I. can source eyewitness accounts, archaeological data, and period illustrations. It can research indigenous oral histories, foreign-language documents, and handwritten notes. It can amplify the story long sidelined by mainstream narratives. It can also erroneously reimagine historical scenes, just as the media of 1873 had.

Warms Springs Scout Posing as a Modoc Warrior, photo by Eadweard Muybridge, Library of Congress and engraving adapted by Harper's Weekly, 1873.

Modoc People Leaving their Stronghold, from Frank Leslie’s Illustrated Newspaper, 1873

U.S. Soldiers inspect Captain Jack's Cave in the Lava Beds, 1873. Photo by Eadweard Muybridge. There are over a hundred known photos of the Modoc event, including soldier training exercises, lava caves and the Modoc War prisoners, making it one of the most documented conflicts of the American West.

Eyewitness sketches, like those by William Simpson, are grounded in lived experience. The artist is physically present, absorbing the atmosphere, danger, and emotion of the moment. A.I. and photography lack the emotional immediacy and subjective judgment that artists bring. In 1872, only a special artist like Simpson could share this important battlefield story, that reflected his humanity and the moment’s intensity.

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More to Know:

• Learn about the Modoc War, and watch a documentary at Oregon Public Radio.

• More portraits of imprisoned Modoc warriors at Public Domain Review

• How will A.I. change the stories we tell about the past? Read Poised to Rewrite History in The New York Times.

• Joe Morse writes thoughtfully in his Eyedrop Weekly, cautioning us on the use of A.I. generated art.

• I’m giving a talk and a workshop on Illustrated Journalism at Sketcherfest in Edmonds, Washington this July 19-20, 2025.